The Vicissitudes of the Latin Plural in English

The Vicissitudes of the Latin Plural in English The Vicissitudes of the Latin Plural in English The Vicissitudes of the Latin Plural in English By Maeve Maddox A recent forum question asks about the word data. The dictionary says the word data can be treated as a singular. But strictly speaking the word is a plural. How does such a thing happen in language? You wouldnt say, the cars is fast. How does a plural gain acceptance as a singular? The answer is, A plural gains acceptance as a singular because language is always changing to suit the comfort of the people who speak it. In the case of data, the singular form datum has been rejected by most English speakers as not sounding right. Hence data is and data are. When the study of Latin was standard in the curriculum of English- speaking children, no one thought twice about using datum as the singular form of data. Now that Latin is a rarity in American education, datum sounds foreign and has been abandoned in general usage. The distinctions between Latin singulars and plurals is still observed for some English words in some contextsscientific or academicbut for the most part, either the singular or the plural Latin form, depending upon which sounds less English, tends to be dropped. Here are some words that started out with Latin singular and plural forms. In some cases both survive. In others, the plural has been anglicized or taken over as the singular. alumna/alumnae; alumnus/alumni Literally foster daughter and foster son, these words refer in American usage to graduates of an educational institution. Most universities tend to use the masculine forms only. Alumnus is still in use as a singular, but I have heard people use alumni as if it could be either singular or plural. datum/data In common usage the plural, data, has become accepted as either singular or plural. medium/media The parts of this pair have taken on different meanings. The plural, media, has come to mean methods of communication such as newspapers, television, radio, and film. Medium can mean the material used by an artist to produce an artistic creation. It can also mean any method for accomplishing something. Ex. As a reporter, hes a member of the media. Which of these mediums do you prefer, watercolor or oil? By means of what medium do you expect to accomplish this? And yes, another kind of medium is a person through whom spirits speak. appendix/appendices The Latin plural is still in use, but one also hears appendixes. formula/formulae The Latin plural persists in scientific contexts, but one often hears formulas. encyclopedia/encyclopediae The English plural encyclopedias is more common than the Latin. index/indices The Latin plural is used in academic contexts, but one commonly hears indexes. axis/axes I dont think Ive ever heard anyone say axises. Its not a word that commonly comes up in conversation. crisis/crises I have heard crisises but in this case the Latin plural crises [cry seez] is easier to say and will probably persist. criterion/criteria Here is a pair that persists in both the Latin singular and plural. One judges the worth of a book according to a set of criteria. One criterion might be style. Another criterion might be accuracy. phenomenon/phenomena A tornado is a phenomenon of Nature. Other phenomena are earthquakes, thunderstorms, and floods. Both the singular and plural forms of this word are alive and well. agendum/agenda Here the singular form has dropped out and people speak of both an agenda and agendas. memorandum/memoranda Both of these forms are still in use, but Ive heard memorandums. cactus/cacti Some people still use the Latin plural, but one hears cactuses. fungus/fungi[fun dzhai] Both forms are in use, but one also hears funguses. hippopotamus/hippopotami Since most people now call them hippos, the Latin plural is not much in use. The plural hippopotamuses is a mouthful and when used tends to sound humorous. Some other unusual singular/plural pairs that may seem to derive from Latin come instead from Greek. They are sometimes mistakenly given invented Latin plurals. octopus You may hear someone use the plural octopi for this word, but the Latin plural would be octopodes. The English plural is octopuses. stigma Heres a word whose original plural has taken on a different meaning with the result that stigmata and stigmas mean different things. A stigma is some kind of negative mark. It is usually used figuratively. Ex. In the 1950s a woman was ruined by the stigma of an illegitimate child. The politician was never able to overcome the stigma of having embezzled state funds. The plural of stigma is stigmas. The original plural stigmata refers to the crucifixion wounds of Christ and to the marks of these wounds as they have appeared on the bodies of certain Christian mystics. Ex. Mystics known to have experienced stigmata include Francis of Assisi and Catherine of Siena. dogma The original plural was dogmata, but dogmas has prevailed. The older plural, however, gives us the adjective dogmatic. There are several other Latin and Greek singular/plural pairs still in use, but these are probably the most common. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Expressions category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:Comma After i.e. and e.g.English Grammar 101: Verb MoodDissatisfied vs. Unsatisfied

Overview of the Basics of Probability

Overview of the Basics of Probability Probability is a term we are relatively familiar with. However, when you look up the definition of probability, youll find a variety of similar definitions. Probability is all around us. Probability refers to the likelihood or relative frequency for something to happen. The continuum of probability falls anywhere from impossible to certain and anywhere in between. When we speak of chance or the odds; the chances or odds of winning the lottery, were also referring to probability. The chances or odds or probability of winning the lottery is something like 18 million to 1. In other words, the probability of winning the lottery is highly unlikely. Weather forecasters use probability to inform us of the likelihood (probability) of storms, sun, precipitation, temperature and along with all weather patterns and trends. Youll hear that theres a 10% chance of rain. To make this prediction, a lot of data is taken into account and then analyzed. The medical field informs us of the likelihood of developing high blood pressure, heart disease, diabetes, the odds of beating cancer etc. The Importance of Probablity in Everyday Life Probability has become a topic in math that has grown out of societal needs. The language of probability starts as early as kindergarten and remains a topic through high school and beyond. The collection and analysis of data have become extremely prevalent throughout the math curriculum. Students typically do experiments to analyze possible outcomes and to calculate frequencies and relative frequencies.Why? Because making predictions is extremely important and useful. Its what drives our researchers and statisticians who will make predictions about disease, the environment, cures, optimal health, highway safety, and air safety to name a few. We fly because we are told that there is only a 1 in 10 million chance of dying in an airplane crash. It takes the analysis of a great deal of data to determine the probability/chances of events and to do so as accurately as possible. In school, students will make predictions based on simple experiments. For instance, they roll dice to determine how often theyll roll a 4. (1 in 6) But they will also soon discover that it is very difficult to predict with any kind of accuracy or certainty what t.he outcome of any given roll will be. They will also discover that the results will be better as the number of trials grows. The results for a low number of trials is not as good as the results are for a large number of trials. With probability being the likelihood of an outcome or event, we can say that the theoretical probability of an event is the number of outcomes of the event divided by the number of possible outcomes. Hence the dice, 1 out of 6. Typically, the math curriculum will require students to conduct experiments, determine fairness, collect the data using various methods, interpret and analyze the data, display the data and state the rule for the probability of the outcome. In summary, probability deals with patterns and trends that occur in random events. Probability helps us to determine what the likelihood of something happening will be. Statistics and simulations help us to determine probability with greater accuracy. Simply put, one could say probability is the study of chance. It affects so many aspects of life, everything from earthquakes occurring to sharing a birthday. If youre interested in probability, the field in math youll want to pursue will be data management and statistics.

Cash Flow Problems Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Cash Flow Problems - Coursework Example The company could also not afford to generate sufficient income to pay the salaries and wages of its employees. Consequently, the business had to close down altogether (Wires, 2011, p.14). Having been established in 1950, the company eventually closed down after 61 years of its operation in the automobile markets Cash flow problems are known to cause 70% of businesses to fail within their first year of establishment, making cash flow problems the major reason for business failure. (Wires, 2011, p.13). The dangers associated with cash flow problems cannot be predicted most of the times. Thus, even the well-established businesses falls into this risk. Although cash flow problems are the reasons for the business failure of the company, there are other various reasons as to why the company could not revive. Due to a lack of goodwill and not a so good reputation, the company could not access credits. Consequently, any means through which the company could improve its operations and head b ack to the path of profit making was blocked by a lack of access to credit (Howard, 2011, p.21). The size of the company is another factor that contributed to its failure. The company is small sized, thus it becomes difficult to compete with other large automobile companies in the industry. The small size is in terms of both its asset base and the market niche that the company has effectively curved. Another problem that forced the company to close down is its dependence on technology from other automobile firms. The company lacks the ability to develop or purchase production technologies of its own, and have thus been dependent on other companies for the provision of such technologies. With such dependence, it means that the company cannot effectively compete with the companies that are providing it with production technologies (Zeitch, 2011, p.9). Low sales have however been the main reason as to why the company could not meet its required cash generation to cover its expenditure. Having projected to sell between 50,000 and 60,000 vehicles in the year 2010, the company only managed to sell 31,696 cars. However, the problems of the company increased when general Motors blocked the rescue attempt of the company by two Chinese automobile firms, arguing that such actions would hurt the company’s markets in the US (White, 2011, p.2). Most significant of the causes of the cash flow problems of the company is the time difference between when the company’s payments were received and the costs incurred. While the costs were incurred continuously due to staff salaries and supplies of materials from the suppliers, the time duration it took to produce the cars, sell, and receive payments was relatively longer. This meant cash flow problems, since revenues could not come in at the same time as the costs went out. Under investment is another cause of the company’s business failure. While the company was, still a part of GM (General Motors), the owners did not invest sufficiently in the company. As a result, the company has not been able to meet its other obligations such as developing production technologies of its own. This has served to create dependency of the company on other automobile companies for technology provision (Howard, 2011, p.21). This notwithstanding, the production portfolio of the company was too small. The company did not manage to address this problem in good time. With such low production, the company could

Personal Action Plan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Personal Action Plan - Essay Example Those who migrate from other regions feel uncomfortable with the cultural and social surroundings of the host country. These issues include, but are not limited to, dressing style, eating habits, language barriers, religious affiliations, and cultural festivals and so on. The most pressing issues that I found are communication and/or language barriers and prejudice against people in minority threatening their integration in the new environment and with the new people. During the course, I realized that my social network with others was weak and full of prejudice and self seeking. In response to this I will strengthen my social relation by making more friends both in the college and in the community as a whole. Improving social network through appreciations and accepting every culture creates a social bond between people. I would focus my action plan in the friends’ group area initially. I would like to take part in making people from different backgrounds mingle and forget differences in their backgrounds, accents, languages and dressing. I would work hard to bring them on the same page by emphasizing on the equality that exists between them for being humans. Another aspect that was identified during the course that has not been up to date is communication. On the personal ground my communication has been moderate. I have been concentrating on my peers and those in the same class. This course has exposed me to learn how to communicate with those in the higher position. These include the lecturers, administrators and university workers. In light to what I have learnt, I will improve my language which has been a barrier to communicate with those in senior authority. Communication has also been a challenge to other who shared this class with me. They did not know how they could channel their complaints to the authority. Hence, I would like to reduce their hesitation by guiding them toward the official procedures that work in a systematic manner to address

Effects of Chlorinated Drinking Water Essay Example for Free

Effects of Chlorinated Drinking Water Essay Chlorine is added to drinking water, as a disinfectant, to get rid of harmful bacteria, which are usually present in areas from where the water is obtained. The controversy of this issue is that chlorination can work as an advantage or as a disadvantage to those consuming it. Chlorine is currently the most effective water treatment when compared with other alternatives. However, it also reacts with natural organic compounds present in the water to produce harmful chemicals that on a long-term basis are very dangerous. The most well known adverse effects of contaminated water is shown in the Walkerton crisis in May 2000, where an outbreak of E. Coli contamination occurred in the water system of Walkerton, Ontario. Seven people died, and a further 2300 fell ill after consuming water that was contaminated by farm manure (Walkerton Report, CBC 2008). This could have been prevented if proper chlorination had taken place. Examples of contaminants that chlorine eliminates are microbes such as E. Coli, Salmonella typhi and Shigella. E. Coli grows when the water is contaminated with human and animal waste products. Upon consuming E. Coli contaminated water, an individual suffers from diarrhea, cramps, nausea, renal failure and sometimes even death. Consuming water contaminated with Salmonella typhi causes typhoid fever. Shigella causes severe abdominal cramping with blood and mucus in the stool. Chlorine’s major advantage is that the water remains disinfected until it reaches the point of consuming, unlike other disinfectants such as ozone or ultraviolet light. Chlorine not only purifies water, it also prevents bacterial growth, nitrogenous contaminants and such from growing in water pipes and storage tanks. It also gets rid of odors, unpleasant taste and organisms known as nuisance organisms. Slime bacteria, iron and sulfate reducing bacteria give the water a very unpleasant look and smell. These bacteria do not cause disease but chlorination gets rid of these organisms. Not only is chlorine easy to use, it is also widely available and of low cost. However, chlorine is also associated with producing harmful byproducts as it reacts with chemicals already present in water. These products are known as disinfection by-products. They include chloroform and are known as trihalomethanes or THMs for short. Studies conducted have shown that tested animals that are exposed to high amounts of THM are at a much greater risk for cancer. Even with humans, long-term exposure to chlorination can greatly increase risks of cancer (LaPure Water Inc, 2000). Also, chlorination does not get rid of all nitrate products. It only prevents the nitrates from reaching a toxic form. These nitrates are from manure products that have not been absorbed by plants. This is not particularly dangerous to adults, but with excess levels can cause â€Å"blue baby† disease (methemoglobinemia) in young infants (Nitrate: Health Effects in Drinking Water, McCasland). Chlorinated water also affects its taste and smell. Using chlorinated water to make coffee, tea, soups, etc changes its taste and smell. Even with these disadvantages, it is evident that the benefits of chlorination outweigh the risks. With proper treatment – making sure that chlorine is not added in excess and proper water testing, drinking water would be much healthier. The only major disadvantage of chlorinated water is the long-term effects of THMs. It is known that using a carbon filter actually gets rid of THMs and other chlorination by-products. People should be made aware of this and encouraged to use carbon filters to filter the water out instead of consuming straight from the tap. There are alternatives to chlorination as well, such as ozonation, which is a method of disinfection by adding ozone gas to water and applying an electric current. It is very effective against microbes and only forms by products, which can be removed with further treatment. Another method of disinfectant is by Ultraviolet light treatment. This method is effective against even more microbes than chlorine is but it is also costly. However, these methods can only be used as primary disinfectants, chlorine is required as a secondary disinfectant in order to disinfect water as much as possible. Also, these methods are temporary – the water does not remain disinfected until it reaches point of being consumed. In conclusion, chlorination is the most effective method of disinfecting water from drinking purposes. It’s the only method that keeps the water clean from the point of treatment to the point of consuming it. It is also the only disinfectant that is capable of minimizing all possible health risks caused by contaminated water. The adverse effects of chlorine such as its harmful by-products can be eliminated or reduced with the use of carbon filters.

The Metamorphosis of Paul Baumer in All Quiet on the Western Front :: All Quiet on the Western Front Essays

The Metamorphosis of Paul Baumer in All Quiet on the Western Front       Erich Maria Remarque's All Quiet on the Western Front, a novel set in World War I, centers around the changes wrought by the war on one young German soldier. During his time in the war, Remarque's protagonist, Paul Baumer, changes from a rather innocent Romantic to a hardened and somewhat caustic veteran. More importantly, during the course of this metamorphosis, Baumer disaffiliates himself from those societal icons-parents, elders, school, religion-that had been the foundation of his pre-enlistment days. This rejection comes about as a result of Baumer's realization that the pre-enlistment society simply does not understand the reality of the Great War. His new society, then, becomes the Company, his fellow trench soldiers, because that is a group which does understand the truth as Baumer has experienced it.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Remarque demonstrates Baumer's disaffiliation from the traditional by emphasizing the language of Baumer's pre- and post-enlistment societies. Baumer either can not, or chooses not to, communicate truthfully with those representatives of his pre-enlistment and innocent days. Further, he is repulsed by the banal and meaningless language that is used by members of that society. As he becomes alienated from his former, traditional, society, Baumer simultaneously is able to communicate effectively only with his military comrades. Since the novel is told from the first person point of view, the reader can see how the words Baumer speaks are at variance with his true feelings. In his preface to the novel, Remarque maintains that "a generation of men ... were destroyed by the war" (Remarque, All Quiet Preface). Indeed, in All Quiet on the Western Front, the meaning of language itself is, to a great extent, destroyed.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Early in the novel, Baumer notes how his elders had been facile with words prior to his enlistment. Specifically, teachers and parents had used words, passionately at times, to persuade him and other young men to enlist in the war effort. After relating the tale of a teacher who exhorted his students to enlist, Baumer states that "teachers always carry their feelings ready in their waistcoat pockets, and trot them out by the hour" (Remarque, All Quiet I. 15). Baumer admits that he, and others, were fooled by this rhetorical trickery. Parents,too, were not averse to using words to shame their sons into enlisting. "At that time even one's parents were ready with the word 'coward'" (Remarque, All Quiet I.

The Young Victoria Movie Review

1/8/12 Period 6 The Young Victoria Directed by Jean-Marc Vallee Produced by Martin Scorsese, Graham King, and Sarah Ferguson Production date: December 18, 2009 Movie Length: 105 minutes In a gripping romantic tale, The Young Victoria is a movie based on the turbulent first years of Queen Victoria, her reign as Queen of England, and her ill-fated romance with Prince Albert. As a child she grew up very guarded and protected. Someone always had to taste her food before her and she couldn’t go up or down the stair without someone holding her hand, even at the age of 18.She was always under the strict watch of her mother, and her father passed away when she was a baby. Her comptroller(the person in charge of supervising her financials), Sir John Conroy wanted William IV to die while Victoria was still under the age of 18, making her a minor and allowing him to become regent giving him the power behind the throne and control over Victoria. Victoria refuses to sign the regency over t o him and when the king dies, who is her uncle, she becomes Queen of England. She begins being courted by two men Lord Melbourne, who was Prime Minister, and Prince Albert.Prince Albert was told to seduce Victoria by his uncle King Leopold of Belgium because the king wanted to secure an alliance with Britain. Along the way Victoria and Albert learn that they have so much in common being teenagers under so much pressure. They begin writing letters back and forth to each other and become fond of each other. Lord Melbourne gives Victoria bad advice after he loses a vote in Parliament, which is to not replace her ladies in waiting. She invites Sir Robert Peel of the Tories to form a new government.He is honored but refuses to accept unless she replaces her ladies-in-waiting (who were all the wives of the friends of Lord Melbourne) with his. Victoria refuses to replace them, so Sir Peel turns down her invitation, letting Melbourne return to his place again as Prime Minister. This decisio n causes her to be very hated by the people. They shouted at her from outside the castle and even went as far as to throw a brink through a window where she was. As Victoria went through these rough times, the letters from Prince Albert regarding how concerned he was for her helped her cope.He can’t resist being away from her anymore so he finds an excuse to travel to see her. He wants to propose to her but realizes that he can’t because as Queen she has to propose to him, which she does. They get married and the spectacle of the royal wedding wins over the public. He becomes upset at the lack of power that he has. He wants to be her equal concerning all matters. She feels like he wants control over her and it causes to them to get in an argument. During all the drama, there is also the relationship with Victoria and her mother crumbling. The King wanted to increase Victoria's income before he died but it was rejected by Conroy.Conroy hits Victoria and becomes aggressi ve with her in front of her mother causing tension between her and her mother. Victoria was upset that her mother just stood by and let him handle her that way. So when she was crowned she banished her mother and Conroy to an apartment in the castle. Her mother was very regretful and wrote to her many times asking for her forgiveness. She missed her mother but couldn’t find the will to forgive her. She replaced her mother with her ladies in waiting, who were her personal servants to care for her, and she became very fond of all of them.While on a carriage ride, and still not talking to each other, a man with a gun shoots at Victoria. Albert pushes her out of the way and takes the bullet. Luckily he survives and she realizes how much she loves him, which leads to their reconciliation. She gives him more power in the house and he fires Conroy for mishandling funds. And she places his desk right next to hers symbolizing that they are equal and also so that he can have a piece of his home with him. They later go on to have nine children, and their descendants are the royal families of Britain, Spain, Sweden, Norway and many other places.They reigned together for 20 years then Albert died from typhoid fever when he was 42. To keep his memory alive, Victoria had his clothes laid out every day until she died at the age of 81. She was the longest reigning British monarch to this day! In my opinion the movie was amazing and told the story of Queen Victoria perfectly. From the title and movie poster I gathered that the movie would be about Queen Victoria as a teen. The movie was filmed 108 years after the death of Queen Victoria. Even though there was a huge time gap, the director said in an interview â€Å"I tried to keep the movie as historically accurate as possible. I think he was very successful! After I saw the movie I read articles online about the actual Queen Victoria and I felt like I was watching the movie all over again. I thought the movie was good because when I was watching, it didn’t feel like I was watching a boring history movie. I was intrigued by the historical storyline twisted with a backdrop of romance, mystery, and a bit of action. The movie was very well written. If the goal of the director was to tell a compelling tale of the Reign of Queen Victoria, then he achieved his goal without a doubt. I honestly can’t think of anything I would do to improve the movie.I think that they captured who Victoria really was and fit as much as they possibly could into the 105 minutes of the movie. I would recommend the movie to anyone. I think the World History themes that are best illustrated in the movie are Empire Building, and Power ; Authority. The Empire building theme applies because this movie in a way is about Queen Victoria starting a new empire when she took the throne. She had to handle all of the government and she had no training. She appointed new people, for different political roles and began to buil d her own empire.The theme Power and Authority is the more dominant theme. The whole movie is about her rise to power and how people tried to take it away from her. People such as Sir Convoy and Melbourne tried to take advantage of her and get her to sign her power over to them. But since she was very strong-willed she refused. She knew she had little training but she wanted to be the only one in power! The introduction of the movie was a voice over from Victoria while showing her as a Baby ; as a little girl. It shows how she first discovered that she was the sole heir to the throne. She had an uncle he didn’t have ny children. She talks about how her life was far from normal and how even though she lived in a castle, she felt trapped. The moral of the story was to stay true to yourself and to not let people control you. The movie did very well with the public and received many accolades. It earned a worldwide gross of $27,409,889. It also received 3 nominations for Oscars r egarding the costumes and art design. It won an Oscar for best costume design. The movie was nominated for many British Awards. Emily Blunt was also nominated for Best Actress at the Golden Globes. The film was very sucessful!

Processor of Frozen Foods Essay

Over time, the costs of processing go down because as organizations learn how to do things better, they become more efficient. In color film processing, for example, the cost of a 3-by-5-inch print fell from 50 cents for five-day service in 1970 to 20 cents for one-day service in 1984. The same principle applies to the processing of food. And since Olympic Foods will soon celebrate its 25th birthday, we can expect that our long experience will enable us to minimize costs and thus maximize profits. The Olympic Foods tries to convince its stockholders through its annual report that it can increase profits as it has long experience. This is supported by comparing with a color film industry in which, the cost of a 3-by-5-inch print feel from 50 cents for five-day service in 1970 to 20 cents for one-day service in 1984. This argument makes some assumptions which is not supported with evidences. The Olympic Foods wrongly compares itself with a color film processing industry. The techniques and environment applicable to the color film processing industry may not be applicable to the food processing industry. What applies to a color film may not apply to food. For example, irrespective of the company’s experience, the time taken for a food to ferment would not change significantly. Just the 25 years of experience cannot be mentioned as a reason for increased profits. Other factors such as climate, market competition would also affect the profit of a company. With all such factors taken into consideration, if it can be proved that experience helps in reducing costs and maximizing profits, the argument would be strengthened. Since the argument misses several key issues, it is not very sound. If it included the points discussed above, the argument could have been thorough and more convincing.

How to Find Enumeration District Maps

How to Find Enumeration District Maps An enumeration district (ED) is a geographic area assigned to an individual census taker, or enumerator, usually representing a specific portion of a city or county. The coverage area of a single enumeration district, as defined by the U.S. Census Bureau, is the area for which an enumerator could complete a count of the population within the allotted time for that particular census year. The size of an ED can range from a single city block (occasionally even a portion of a block if it is located within a large city packed with high-rise apartment buildings) to an entire county in sparsely populated rural areas. Each enumeration district designated for a particular census was assigned a number. For more recently released censuses, such as 1930 and 1940, each county within a state was assigned a number and then a smaller ED area within the county was assigned a second number, with the two numbers joined with a hyphen. In 1940, John Robert Marsh and his wife, Margaret Mitchell, famous author of Gone With the Wind, were living in a condo at 1 South Prado (1268 Piedmont Ave) in Atlanta, Georgia. Their 1940 Enumeration District (ED) is 160–196, with 160 representing the City of Atlanta, and 196 designating the individual ED within the city designated by the cross streets of S. Prado and Piedmont Ave. What Is an Enumerator? An enumerator, commonly called a census taker, is an individual temporarily employed by the U.S. Census Bureau to collect census information by going house to house in their assigned enumeration district. Enumerators are paid for their work and provided with detailed instructions on how and when to gather the information about each individual living within their assigned enumeration district(s) for a particular census. For the 1940 Census enumeration, each enumerator had either 2 weeks or 30 days to obtain information from each individual within their enumeration district. Using Enumeration Districts for Genealogy Now that US census records are indexed and available online, Enumeration Districts arent as important to genealogists as they once were. They can still be helpful, however, in certain situations. When you cant locate an individual in the index, then browse page-by-page through the records of the ED where you expect your relatives to be living. Enumeration District maps are also helpful for determining the order that an enumerator may have worked his way through his particular district, helping you to visualize the neighborhood and identify neighbors. How to Locate an Enumeration District To identify an individuals enumeration district, we need to know where they were living at the time the census was taken, including the state, city and street name. The street number is also very helpful in larger cities. With this information, the following tools can help to locate the Enumeration District for each census: Stephen P. Morse’s One-Step Tools website includes ED Finder tools for the 1880, 1900, 1910, 1920, 1930, and 1940 U.S. federal censuses.Morse’s One-Step site also offers an ED conversion tool for converting between 1920 and 1930, and 1930 and 1940 Censuses.The National Archives has online ED maps and geographic descriptions for the 1940 census. Descriptions of Census Enumeration Districts 1830–1890 and 1910–1950 can be found on the 156 rolls of NARA microfilm publication T1224. Enumeration District maps for 1900–1940 are available on the 73 rolls of NARA microfilm publication A3378. The Family History Library also has Enumeration District maps and descriptions on FHL microfilm.

Biography of Queen Elizabeth I, Virgin Queen of England

Biography of Queen Elizabeth I, Virgin Queen of England Elizabeth I (Born Princess Elizabeth; September 7, 1533–March 24, 1603) was Queen of England and Ireland from 1558 to 1603, the last of the Tudor monarchs. She never married and consciously styled herself as the Virgin Queen, wedded to the nation. Her reign was marked by immense growth for England, especially in world power and cultural influence. Fast Facts: Queen Elizabeth I Known For:  Queen of England from 1558–1603, known for defeating the Spanish Armada and encouraging cultural growthAlso Known As:  Princess Elizabeth, the Virgin QueenBorn:  September 7, 1533 in Greenwich, EnglandParents: King Henry VIII and Anne BoleynDied:  March 24, 1603 in Richmond, EnglandEducation: Educated by William Grindal and Roger Ascham, among othersPublished Works:  Letters, speeches, and poems (collected in modern times in the volume, Elizabeth I: Collected WorksNotable Quote: I know I have the body of a weak and feeble woman, but I have the heart and stomach of a king and of a king of England too.† Early Life On September 7, 1533,  Anne Boleyn, then Queen of England, gave birth to the Princess Elizabeth. She was baptized three days later and was named after her paternal grandmother,  Elizabeth of York. The princesss arrival was a bitter disappointment, as her parents had been certain that she would be a boy, the son  Henry VIII  so desperately wanted and had married Anne to have. Elizabeth rarely saw her mother and before she was 3, Anne Boleyn was executed on trumped-up charges of adultery and treason. The marriage was declared invalid and Elizabeth was then declared illegitimate, as her half-sister,  Mary, had been, and reduced to the title of Lady instead of Princess. Despite this, Elizabeth was educated under some of the most highly regarded educators of the time, including William Grindal and Roger Ascham. By the time she had reached her teens, Elizabeth knew Latin, Greek, French, and Italian. She was also a talented musician, able to play the spinet and lute. She even composed a little. Restored to the Line of Succession After Henry fathered a son, an act of Parliament in 1543 restored  Mary  and Elizabeth to the line of succession, though it did not restore their legitimacy. When Henry died in 1547, Edward, his only son, succeeded to the throne. Elizabeth went to live with Henry’s widow,  Catherine Parr. When Parr became pregnant in 1548, she sent Elizabeth away to set up her own household, following incidents of her husband, Thomas Seymour, apparently attempting to groom or seduce Elizabeth. After Parr’s death in 1548, Seymour began scheming to achieve more power and secretly plotted to marry Elizabeth. After he was executed for treason, Elizabeth experienced her first brush with scandal and had to endure rigorous investigation. After the scandal passed, Elizabeth spent the rest of her brother’s reign living quietly and respectably,   A Focal Point for Discontent Edward VI attempted to disinherit both his sisters, favoring his cousin  Lady Jane Grey for the throne. However, he did so without the backing of Parliament and his will was patently illegal, as well as unpopular. After his death in 1533, Mary succeeded to the throne and Elizabeth joined her triumphant procession.  Unfortunately, Elizabeth soon lost favor with her Catholic sister, likely due to English Protestants seeing her as an alternative to Mary. Because Mary wed her Catholic cousin,  Philip II of Spain, Thomas Wyatt (the son of one of Anne Boleyns friends) led a rebellion, which Mary blamed on Elizabeth. She sent Elizabeth to the Tower of London, where criminals including Elizabeths mother had awaited execution. With no evidence found against her, and Queen Mary’s husband viewing her as an asset for a political marriage, Elizabeth avoided execution and was released. Mary suffered a false pregnancy in 1555, leaving Elizabeth all but certain to inherit. Elizabeth I Becomes Queen Mary died on November 17, 1558, and Elizabeth inherited the throne, the third and final of Henry VIII’s children to do so. Her procession into London and coronation were masterpieces of political statement and planning, and her accession was treated warmly by many in England who hoped for greater religious toleration. Elizabeth quickly assembled a Privy Council and promoted a number of key advisors: One, William Cecil (later Lord Burghley), was appointed principal secretary. Their partnership would prove to be fruitful and he remained in her service for 40 years. The Marriage Question One question that dogged Elizabeth, particularly in the early part of her reign, was the question of succession. Numerous times, the parliament presented her with official requests that she marry. Most of the English population hoped that marriage would solve the problem of a woman ruling. Women were not believed to be capable of leading forces into battle. Their mental powers were considered to be inferior to men.  Men often gave Elizabeth unsolicited advice, particularly in regards to the will of God, which only men were believed to be able to interpret. Elizabeth I’s Image Despite the frustration, Elizabeth governed with her head. She knew how to use courtship as a useful political tool, and she wielded it masterfully. Throughout her life, Elizabeth had a variety of suitors. The closest she came to marriage was likely with longtime friend Robert Dudley, but that hope ended when his first wife died mysteriously and Elizabeth had to distance herself from scandal. In the end, she refused to marry and also refused to name a political successor. Elizabeth cultivated the image of herself as the Virgin Queen wedded to her kingdom, and her speeches made great use of romantic languages, such as love, in defining her role. The campaign was entirely successful, maintaining Elizabeth as one of England’s best-loved monarchs. Religion Elizabeth’s reign marked a change from Mary’s Catholicism and a return to the policies of Henry VIII, whereby the English monarch was head of an English church. The Act of Supremacy in 1559 began a process of gradual reform, effectively creating the Church of England. As part of her path of reform in the church, Elizabeth famously declared that she would tolerate all but the  most radical sects.  She demanded only outward obedience, unwilling to force consciences. This wasn’t enough for more extreme Protestants, and Elizabeth faced criticism from them. Mary, Queen of Scots and Catholic Intrigue Elizabeth’s decision to adopt Protestantism earned her condemnation from the pope, who gave permission for her subjects to disobey and even kill her. This inflamed numerous plots against Elizabeth’s life, a situation exacerbated by Mary, Queen of Scots. Mary Stuart, Elizabeth’s Catholic cousin, was the granddaughter of Henry’s sister and was seen by many to be a Catholic heir to the throne. In 1568, Mary fled Scotland after her marriage to Lord Darnley ended in murder and a suspicious remarriage,  and she begged for Elizabeths help to be restored to power. Elizabeth didn’t want to return Mary to full power in Scotland, but she didn’t want the Scots to execute her, either. She kept Mary in confinement for 19 years, but her presence in England proved to be detrimental to the precarious religious balance within the country, as Catholics used her as a rallying point. Mary was the focus of plots to kill Elizabeth during the 1580s. Although Elizabeth resisted calls to accuse and execute Mary at first, ultimately, she was persuaded by evidence that Mary had been party to the plots, not just an unwilling figurehead. Still, Elizabeth fought against signing the execution warrant until the bitter end, going so far as to encourage private assassination. After the execution, Elizabeth claimed that the warrant was dispatched against her wishes; whether that was true or not is unknown. War and the Spanish Armada England’s Protestant religion put it at odds with neighboring Catholic Spain and, to a lesser extent, France. Spain was involved in military plots against England and Elizabeth came under pressure from home to become involved with defending other Protestants on the continent, which on occasion she did. The execution of Mary Stuart convinced Philip in Spain that it was time to conquer England and restore Catholicism within the country. Stuart’s execution also meant that he would not have to put an ally of France on the throne. In 1588, he launched the infamous  Armada. Elizabeth went to Tilbury Camp to encourage her troops, declaring: â€Å"I know I have the body of a weak and feeble woman, but I have the heart and stomach of a king, and a king of England too, and think foul scorn that Parma or Spain, or any prince of Europe, should dare invade the borders of my realm†¦Ã¢â‚¬ Ã‚   In the end, England defeated the Armada and Elizabeth was victorious. This would prove to be the climax of her reign: Only a year later, the same Armada all but destroyed the English Navy. Ruler of the Golden Age The years of Elizabeth’s rule are often referred to simply using her name- The Elizabethan Age. Such was her profound effect on the nation. The period is also called the Golden Age, for these years saw England rise to the status of world power thanks to voyages of exploration and economic expansion. Toward the end of her reign, England experienced a blossoming literary culture.  Edward Spenser  and  William Shakespeare  were both supported by the queen and likely drew inspiration from their regal leader. Architecture, music, and painting also experienced a boom in popularity and innovation. The presence of her strong and balanced rule facilitated this. Elizabeth herself wrote and translated works. Problems and Decline The last 15 years of her reign were the hardest on Elizabeth, as  her most trusted advisers died and younger courtiers struggled for power. Most infamously, a former favorite, the Earl of Essex, led a poorly-plotted rebellion against the queen in 1601. It failed miserably and he was executed. Toward the very end of Elizabeth’s long reign, national problems began to grow. Consistently poor harvests and high inflation damaged both the economic situation and belief in the queen, as did anger at the alleged greed of court favorites. Death Elizabeth held her final Parliament in 1601. In 1602 and 1603, she lost several dear friends, including her cousin Lady Knollys (granddaughter of Elizabeths aunt  Mary Boleyn). Elizabeth experienced ever more depression, something she had experienced her entire life. She declined notably in health and died on March 24, 1603. She was buried in Westminster Abbey in the same tomb as her sister Mary. She had never named an heir, but her cousin James VI, the Protestant son of Mary Stuart, succeeded to the throne and was likely her preferred successor. Legacy Elizabeth has been remembered more for her successes than her failures and as a monarch that loved her people and was much loved in return. Elizabeth was always revered and seen as almost divine. Her unmarried status often led to comparisons of Elizabeth with the Roman goddess  Diana, the Virgin Mary, and even a  Vestal Virgin. Elizabeth went out of her way to cultivate a wider public. In the early years of her reign, she often went out to the country on annual visits to aristocratic houses, showing herself to most of the public along the road in the country and townsfolk of southern England. In poetry, she has been celebrated as an English embodiment of feminine strength associated with such mythic heroines as Judith,  Esther, Diana, Astraea, Gloriana, and Minerva. In her personal writings, she showed  wit and intelligence. Throughout her reign, she proved to be a capable politician and  she reigned for almost half a century. She consistently maintained her control on government, remaining cordial with parliament and ministers, but never allowing them to control her. Much of Elizabeth’s reign was a careful balancing act between both factions of her own court as well as with other nations. Keenly aware of the increased burdens due to her gender, Elizabeth managed to construct a complex persona that awed and charmed her subjects. She portrayed herself very much as her father’s daughter, fierce if need be. Elizabeth was lavish in her presentation, part of her brilliantly orchestrated campaign to mold her image and retain power. She impresses people even today and her name has become synonymous with strong women. Sources Collinson, Patrick. Elizabeth I.  Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press, 2004.  Dewald, Jonathan, and Wallace MacCaffrey. Elizabeth I (England).  Europe 1450 to 1789: Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World. Charles Scribners Sons, 2004.  Kinney, Arthur F., David W. Swain, and Carol Levin. Elizabeth I.  Tudor England: an encyclopedia. Garland, 2001.  Gilbert, Sandra M., and Susan Gubar. Queen Elizabeth I.  The Norton Anthology of Literature by Women: The Traditions in English. 3. ed. Norton, 2007.

Education, African American males Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Education, African American males - Essay Example Approaches There are many approaches through which studies on this trend where only a small percentage of the community bothers with higher education can be carried. One is the based on Emile Durkheim’s functionalist approach to the study of society (Poggi, 2000). Durkheim pointed out that institutions in the society played specific roles and became redundant once these roles became outdated or overtaken by events (Poggi, 2000). Higher education to the African-American was historically a preserve of the Caucasians hence the reason why some African-Americans still regarded it as alien and serving no real purpose in their lives. This could have accounted for their apathy towards education in the early days though this situation is gradually changing (Poggi, 2000). There were limited opportunities in the early days for the African Americans whose only employment was in the form of domestic and farm work hence there was no real need for advanced level of education for them. Conseq uently they developed the attitude that only basic education was necessary for them. With this came the latent factor, the blacks began regarding education as alien and part of their education. This formed the basis of their indifference towards education (Baird, & Walter, 2008). This situation only changed when the liberation movements of the early 20th century resulted in more opportunities for the blacks.

Whistleblower Ombudsman Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Whistleblower Ombudsman - Essay Example Whistleblowing is essential to weeding out fraud and abuse in the healthcare industry. The government is particularly keen in promoting whistleblowing because fraud and abuse may reach up to 3% to 10% of actual health care costs (Kesselheim & Studdert, 2008, p.342). Recoveries from the False Claims Act (FCA) since 2009 have reached approximately $9 billion (Kesselheim & Studdert, 2008, p.342). To encourage whistleblowing, the Whistleblower Protection Act bans retaliation. Retaliation refers to threatening or taking action against employees because they have disclosed fraudulent or abusive actions (Office of Inspector General, 2015). These actions may include, but are not limited to, poor performance review, demotion, termination, suspension, or downgrade, loss of, or revocation of security clearance (Office of Inspector General, 2015). The law does not allow retaliation for: (1) filing an appeal, complaint, or grievance; (2) helping another person file the case or to testify for whis tleblowers; (3) cooperating with or giving information to the Office of Special Counsel (OSC) or Office of Inspector General (OIG); or (4) not obeying an unlawful instruction or order (Office of Inspector General, 2015). These conditions that prevent retaliation are important because it helps decrease the fears of other people who want to disclose important information, but are not the direct whistleblowers. For instance, an accountant gives financial documents and memos to the OSC, even when he is not the whistleblower. The law prevents retaliation against him from his company. In other words, he has the same protections as the whistleblowers. Besides these protections, the FCA entitles whistleblowers to up to 30% for the amount recovered during trials or settlements (Golinkin, 2013, p.304). This is a monetary incentive too, but I believe that this is not the main